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Sun Spine | School K-12

application

In schools, Sun Spine is found in major corridors typically with classrooms on the opposite side. School designs favor mullioned windows that create Marching Order. 

research

Sun Spine1 introduces light and views of a natural environment into corridor spaces, creating a well-lit, restorative space for students to pass through on their way to class. The openness of these spaces provides sight-lines that allow teachers to monitor student behavior. Secondary schools, particularly those with large courtyards or those with several buildings, are more likely to utilize Sun Spine to connect classrooms and facilities. In some instances, Sun Spine is paired with Showcase Stair.2 Additionally, the patterns formed by the mullions of the windows create Marching Order3, a rhythm of consecutively spaced forms used to create spatial order. In some instances, windows are on both sides of the path, and sometimes glass ceilings make the hall into an atrium. 

History

To understand the origin of Sun Spine, one must understand something about the history of glass walls. A curtain wall is defined as an exterior wall "loaded only by [its] own weight," not the weight of the roof or the rest of the building. As architects begin to experiment with the exterior wall plane and as building style and structural technology evolves, the glass curtain wall comes into existence. "In the early decades of the 20th century, one of the envisioned promises of modern architecture was a future in which the idea of transparency, in both its literal and phenomenal manifestations, would have a liberating effect, leading to new and improved modes of cultural expression."4

Even as glass walls are heralded as a symbol of modernity in the 20th century, their evolution starts as early as the decade of 1850. Built to celebrate international exhibitions, both the Crystal Palace of London (1850) and of New York (1853) "contained large wall and roof areas of iron framing and glass panels."5 These influential buildings, despite being harbingers of the coming modernism, initially have little effect on architects' understanding of building structure. Effective measures for lighting these cavernous spaces did not yet exist, so there was little impetus to explore iron frames with glass panels. 

Coupled with the lack of understanding of structure, code regulations in New York prevent architects from experimenting with the capabilities of the curtain wall for the next few decades. However, architects' fascination with the glass wall continues.  Experimentation with cast iron and glass facades results in the Thomas Gantt Building (1877) in St. Louis, Missouri by an unknown architect. The building has a "cast iron facade with [clearly articulated] large metal-framed windows and modular units prefabricated and bolted together on site."6 The period following the American Civil War is marked by improvements in engineers' understanding of the curtain wall's structure and potential application. 

Although technological exploration stalls in the United States, Europe continues experimenting with glass panels and steel frames. "The obvious benefits of increased daylight, views, and opportunities for ventilation" calls for the creation of buildings with ever larger windows. Among the first buildings to truly open up the wall plane and apply new methods of construction is the Fagus Shoe-Last Factory (1911) designed by Walter Gropius and Adolf Meyer. This building, seated in Alsfeld an der Leine, Germany contains a "wall with [an] organizing grid of slender steel mullions... divided into clear glass panels and metal spandrels."7

Slowly, the use of all-glass curtain walls spread. In 1918, the Hallidie Building in San Francisco by the architect Willis Polk is among the first urban structures to feature a curtain wall made entirely of glass. Shortly thereafter, the trend-setting Gropius and Meyer utilize the technology to create the Bauhaus Building in 1926. This school, located in Dessau, Germany, contains classrooms, dormitories and workshops.8 This building and others like it are enormously influential, announcing a new age of architecture, one that is even further removed from the thick, heavy masonry structures of the previous century. This new architecture features light and air and a new architecture of space, not volume.

As all-glass curtain walls become increasingly popular, technology slowly catches up to the demand for glass. Early in the decade of 1950, Sir Alistair Pilkington of England "invented a new method of architectural glass production-called the float process-that still dominates the industry and that fed the rapid growth of glass architecture during the second half of the twentieth century."9 Following this development, the lowered cost of glass contributes to its use in glass curtain walls in schools throughout the United States.

Effect 

"For Frank Lloyd Wright, glass represented the liberation of interior space, the reintegration of the interior with its exterior setting." Only a few years later, Caudill Rowlett Scott (CRS) reiterate Wright's concept. William Caudill, in Toward Better School Design, observes that a "school should not be divorced from nature. It should harmonize with and take advantage of all that nature has to offer in the way of beautiful surroundings. That is why sometimes glass walls are better than brick ones."10 This principle is reflected in many of the schools that CRS designed. However, the benefits of creating glass-walled corridors ae more than just aesthetic. 

Caudill's programmatic analysis of schools concludes that "high school students [spend] as much time in halls (over an hour a day) as they do in any one classroom or laboratory: therefore halls and other circulation areas should be designed to help achieve the aims of the educational program." This revolutionary idea transforms corridors from "dark tunnels" to "well lighted attractive spaces" that can become a secondary classroom or socializing space, rather than "just places to walk."11

Hallways fulfill educational requirements, and they are also important to the function of the building itself. Because few schools in the decade of 1950 have air conditioning, Caudill and his partners are left to find their own ways to cool down buildings in the Midwest and southern states like Texas, the home base of CRS's practice. As a result, corridors are "designed as an air flow duct [and were] made large enough to scoop up the prevailing breeze and dam up the air as a reservoir; then with a system of grills and baffles, the air is evenly distributed from the corridor into the classrooms."12 

Numerous studies since 1950 confirm the need for adequate amounts of daylight in schools, be it in the hallway or the classroom. "[Student] performance improves in the presence of daylight and its positive effect is manifested in better social behavior." While a variety of lighting should be available in schools to aid students in various activities, there should also be enough daylight in classrooms and school spaces such that building inhabitants can perceive the change in lighting throughout the course of the day. Overall "natural daylight has a positive impact on [the] bodily and mental well-being of all humans."13

The mullioned windows of schools also have a secondary effect that wherein their frames convey both a sense of solidarity and of motion. Lying across or at the top of a series of vertical mullions in Marching Order, "a straight beam will accent a horizontal motion... a motion paralleling the construction is indicated." This effect of Marching Order with a Sun Spine provides instruction to students, directing them down the corridor; it also lends a feeling of weight and permanence to the glass wall, which otherwise would "carry no weight and in character [be] ‘non-existent.'" Additionally, by ordering the Sun Spine with Marching Order and creating architectural rhythm through mullions, "varied but not chaotic schools" can be achieved, arriving at an ideal architectural state for children.14

Chronological Sequence

William Caudill notes that "American architecture in general drifted backward after the first advances of the Chicago School, and failed to get under way again until 1933, but in school architecture the retrogression lasted even longer . . . from 1915 to 1945 progress in school planning slowed up."15 Additionally, the development of steel frame structures and the glass curtain wall are just becoming accessible to the general public in the decade of 1950. For these reasons, it is appropriate for the purpose of this study to begin exploring Sun Spine's chronological sequence beginning in 1950. 

Due to their collaboration with elementary and secondary school educators about 1950, CRS is among the first to utilize the knowledge gained from these collaborations in planning school buildings. As a result, "double wide" corridors like the one in Norman High School of Norman, Oklahoma in 1951 are brought into existence as a place for students to not only pass through, but to stay and mingle within; the main hallways become student centers, exhibit spaces, lounges, auditorium lobbies, library reading rooms, locker rooms, and waiting rooms for administrative offices.16 The school design allows for easy expansion and the maximization of "natural illumination." Classes are built off of one side of the corridors, while the opposite side utilizes a glass curtain to create a Sun Spine, looking inward toward a courtyard. These windows are framed by regularly placed metal frames that create a rhythm moving down the corridor. Fluorescent fixtures augment the natural light and are placed at regular intervals going down the corridor. Classrooms attached to the corridor, have clerestory windows that allow natural light from the corridor to flow through into the space.

Another school built with the anticipation of expansion was the Langley-Bath-Clearwater High School of Bath, South Carolina featured in Architectural Record in 1955. In this school, "classrooms face outward from single-loaded glass-walled corridors which surround a quiet court next to the library for outdoor reading . . . corridor ceilings [had overhangs] on one side and trees on the other [to] protect classrooms from sun and glare."17 In this Sun Spine, lockers line the classroom side, while natural light floods the space via operable windows that line the opposite wall from floor to ceiling down the length of the corridor. Pendant light fixtures are placed at intervals down the hall and exposed joists ran parallel to the length of the corridor. Notches in the classroom wall allow openings for doors and create rhythm throughout the length of the corridor. 

In 1955, the Pocantico Hills Central School in Pocantico Hills, New York establishes a Sun Spine in a similar manner to the Langley-Bath Clearwater High School. In Pocantico Hills, Perkins + Will create classrooms that branch off from a Sun Spine corridor, with floor to ceiling windows lining the opposite side. Because this school serves a younger population, cubbies and coat hooks line the classroom side rather than the metal lockers found in secondary schools. As opposed to other depictions of Sun Spine from this decade, the corridor is one level off of the ground floor, although this building also makes use of a Sun Spine corridor on the ground floor. The use of windows here is also meant to highlight the lake the school surrounds "a community institution dredged out of a spring-fed bottom."18

Greenfield Elementary School, built in 1960 in Birmingham, Michigan is designed to accommodate 650 pupils from kindergarten through sixth grade. The plan of the school allows a "classroom [to] face inner semi-enclosed and enclosed garden courts which also separate grade groups." An image from the school depicts a Sun Spine with a glass curtain wall on one side, looking out towards one of the "garden courts" with classrooms with clerestory windows on the opposite side. From the window, a perpendicular glass-walled Sun Spine can also be seen, connecting the wing on the other side.19 

In 1960 H.F. Hunt Junior High School in Tacoma, Washington is used both by students and the surrounding community. The building contains "two open and planted courts, which double as outdoor corridors;" these courts also introduce natural light into the interior corridors through the use of floor-to-ceiling glass walls that line the space on one side, creating a Sun Spine. A photograph shows a student walking down the corridor, the windows of which look out onto a courtyard where another corridor can be seen. The second corridor photograph also documents a Sun Spine with windows on both wall planes.20

Built in Andover, Massachusetts in 1961, the South Elementary School features glass walls around an interior courtyard, which "admits daylight to the interior library... [thereby relieving] the regularity of the [school plan's] in-line arrangement."21 The courtyard sits in the middle between two long hallways that extend the length of the school, with classrooms off of the far sides. Like the article suggests, the courtyard and Sun Spine corridors provide light to an otherwise dark, unbroken and monotonous corridor. In this Sun Spine, joists are also exposed in the ceiling, running perpendicular to the length of the hall, with a series of metal cans extending from the ceiling at intervals parallel to the windows. Glazed brick lines the non-window walls and ceramic tiles are used in the floor plane. 

Similar to Caudill Rowlett Scott's multi-building schools, East Hills High School, built in 1964, was intended to create a campus-like facility, despite the severe winter conditions of Bloomfield Hills, Michigan. "The four main elements of the school [are] grouped around a central court" connect by several Sun Spine corridors surrounding a large, central courtyard.22 The overhang on this corridor is larger than previous examples of Sun Spine, with the roof extended a few feet beyond the glass curtain wall, into the courtyard where several evenly spaced brick columns provide support. The corridor itself is plain; the wall opposite the glass curtain wall contains a clerestory, allowing light from the courtyard to filter into the interior rooms. Wall panels aligning with the clerestory windows give some additional rhythm to this side of the corridor. 

In this Sun Spine in Greenwich, Connecticut, "window walls open [the school] to visual and spatial relationships with other parts of the campus".23 In 1971, Greenwich High School is built on a site containing "fine old trees, rock outcroppings, and [a] natural pond." A goal of the architects is to save these natural features and to create a building that was one with the landscape. In addition to creating a school that feels open to the surrounding environment, Sun Spines are used to link the school's academic "house" wings with those of the fine arts and the gymnasium and natatorium. Like the Sun Spine corridor in Norman High School, the corridor in East Hills is wider than most, with plenty of space for both circulation and socialization. Windows are not operable, although doors open out onto a courtyard space. Artificial lighting is provided in the form of cans, which proceed down the corridor in two parallel lines. Regularly spaced columns articulate the horizontal planes of the hall, as do the window's mullions, providing a cadence to the passage. 

"The Cambridge Rindge and Latin School, in Cambridge, Massachusetts, designed by Eduardo Catalano, uses architectural interventions to work for positive social and environmental effects." An amalgam of two formerly separate public high schools, Rindge Tech and Cambridge High and Latin, the new building joins these separate facilities and eliminated redundant spaces. An "elevated two-story skywalk wrapped in transparent glass" connects the two halves of the building and becomes the Sun Spine space for the school. Conceived as an airwalk, this Sun Spine features windows on both wall planes that run from three feet above floor level up to the roofline. One wall slopes gently toward the ceiling while the other plane runs perpendicular, which creates a more dynamic space. Regularity is given to the space by the thick mullions of the windows and in the large lighting cans that descend from the ceiling. The flooring for this space is tile and brick, brought to life by the natural light that flood the space.24  

Designed by Perkins + Will, the Desert View Elementary school in Sunland Park, New Mexico makes use of "simple concrete block and bar joists" to create a low-cost school. "Varied fenestration... helps give the building a much larger, grander sense of scale than its relatively modest size would ordinarily evoke."25 Two different corridors in the school utilize Sun Spine in hallway spaces. In one wing of the school, a large hallway with two-story high ceilings contains turquoise-painted trusses and beams spaced at regular intervals down the corridor's ceiling plane. Short, wide windows near the ceiling echo the even spacing of larger windows below and allow more natural light to enter the space. The lower set of windows run from the floor up to a mid-wall horizontal datum. A second Sun Spine space in a different part of the school connects administrative spaces to a classroom corridor. Turquoise trusses are repeated here, lying perpendicular to the roofline, evenly spaced down the corridor. Large glass windows with white mullions run from a foot off the ground up to the ceiling plane to create a Sun Spine.    

The Perry Community Education Village of Perry, Ohio, built in 1995, contains "three distinct schools and a sports complex- the town's entire school system" in one large plot of land near a nuclear power plant facility. By locating the schools in the same complex, the town was able to "starting doubling up on functions so there is some economy." An image from the school's music building shows a short Sun Spine wherein "windows on the left look out into a courtyard" and the corridor leads toward the band room. The windows of what starts out as a two-story space have long, horizontal panes of glass, separated by large, white mullions. As the corridor curves on the right, the left side bends to create a square corner, then continues down the hall as a one-story space.26

"When it was built in 1954, the Wilbert Snow Elementary School in Middletown, Connecticut embodied the era's progressive thinking regarding modern architecture's role in public education... five free-standing classroom buildings stood in a horseshoe formation behind three administration buildings."27 While sound in theory (the architects were striving to connect students to nature), this practice ultimately fails as young students struggle to pass between buildings in bad weather. A goal of this 1999 renovation was to connect these disjointed facilities into one larger building, while still maintaining the connection to nature. The solution utilized Sun Spine, creating window-walled corridors that connect classrooms to administrative spaces. 

A photograph of the Sun Spine shows the connection to a wing of classrooms; the ceiling drops from an atrium space to a lower ceiling height in the corridor. Parallel horizontal mullions and glass stretch from the floor up to the ceiling and have thin, green metal mullions. The opposite side of the corridor also has a window wall, but instead of looking to the exterior, this window looks into a music classroom.

The Flint Hill School in Oakton, Virginia boasts two Sun Spines in different places in its complex. Built in 2001 by Chatelain Architects, one Sun Spine can be found on the second floor, running over the school's main entrance and leading to the science classrooms. Another is located near one of the school's main staircases and along the southern side of the building. Both corridors allow a great deal of light into the school, which was designed for optimum light flow.28  

In 2005, Skidmore, Owings & Merrill were contracted to design Burr Elementary School in Fairfield, Connecticut. This unique public school worked with existing wildlife on site to create a series of "Amoeba-shaped courtyards" that "function as auxiliary teaching spaces protected within the building footprint."29 These courtyards are lined with "standard aluminum-framed glazing lets in views and daylight while keeping sight lines open".  These windows extend two stories, up through both floors of the school, allowing light in through floor to ceiling windows with thin white mullions. Located near multi-use spaces in the building, these Sun Spines experience a great deal of student traffic. 

Located in Greenwich, Connecticut, the Brunswick Upper School has been around since the early 20th century, and as such has undergone several additions and renovations, resulting in a campus with a lack of unity. Skidmore, Owings & Merrill sought to remedy this by "linking the disjunctive buildings with a two-story glass walkway, creating a continuous means of circulation between the campus buildings". The new Sun Spine features large glass panels that run from floor to ceiling without break. Between each panel are large steel frames. The curving corridor shows small light fixtures around the edge of the ceiling, allowing for a great deal of nature lighting.30

When work began on Nathan Hale High School in Seattle, Washington in 2011, "the school was essentially a closed concrete box, full long, windowless corridors that isolated students in mazelike paths and concealed the layout of the program." To help with wayfinding, the architect, Mahlum, designs "students commons around two existing interior courtyards- one north of the main corridor, one south... architects removed concrete infill panels from the courtyard-facing walls, leaving the structural columns and fitted the openings with windows".31 The result is a Sun Spine, with views to the open courtyard. Fluorescent lights hang in Marching Order, perpendicular to the path of circulation. Glossy white flooring reflects light from the courtyard space into the interior.

Sun Spine is consistently represented in every decade since it first appeared in 1951. The benefits schools receive from the natural light it allows into the interior will not change in the coming years, and continue to outweigh the negatives, lack of insulation, heat, and glare, especially with developments in window and glass technology. It can be expected that Sun Spine will continue to appear in schools for decades to come.32

end notes

  1. 1) The Intype Sun Spine was originally identified and named by graduate student Rachel Barry and her committee in 2009 as part of her unpublished thesis research about the Healthcare practice type.
  2. 2) Showcase Stair is an extravagantly designed architectural feature in which the stair itself becomes a prominent display element. Its functionality is often secondary to the spatial drama created by the stair's structure, form, materials and lighting. It has been established as an archetypical practice in apartments, hotels, houses, and retail design. The Interior Archetypes Research and Teaching Project, Cornell University, http://www.intypes.cornell.edu/intypesub.cfm?inTypeID=95 (accessed May 29, 2012). 
  3. 3) Marching Order is a sequence of repeating forms organized consecutively, one after another, that establish a measured spatial order. It has been established as an archetypical practice in retail, showroom and workplace design. The Interior Archetypes Research and Teaching Project, Cornell University, http://www.intypes.cornell.edu/intypesub.cfm?inTypeID=95 (accessed May 29, 2012).
  4. 4) Donald Friedman, Historical Building Construction (New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1995), 114; Scott Charles Murray, Contemporary Curtain Wall Structure (Princeton: Princeton Architectural Press, 2009), 25.
  5. 5) Friedman, Historic Building Construction, 121. 
  6. 6) Murray, Contemporary Curtain Wall Structure, 18.
  7. 7) Murray, Contemporary Curtain Wall Structure, 18, 19.
  8. 8) Murray, Contemporary Curtain Wall Structure, 20-21.
  9. 9) Murray, Contemporary Curtain Wall Structure, 28.
  10. 10) Murray, Contemporary Curtain Wall Structure, 25; William W. Caudill, Toward Better School Design (Ann Arbor, Mich.: FW Dodge Corp, 1954), 54.
  11. 11) Caudill, Toward Better School Design, 38, 160.
  12. 12) Caudill, Toward Better School Design, 70.
  13. 13) Rotraut Walden, Schools for the Future: Design Proposals from Architectural Psychology (Germany: Hogrefe and Huber Publishers, 2009), 83, 83.
  14. 14) Thomas Thiis-Evensen, Archteypes in Architecture (Oxford: Norwegian University Press, 1987), 325, 189; Walden, Schools for the Future: Design Proposals from Architectural Psychology, 82. 
  15. 15) Caudill, Toward Better School Design, 13-14.
  16. 16) Jonathan King and Philip Langdon, The CRS Team and the Business of Architecture (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2002), 66-68; Norman High School [1951] Caudill Rowlett Scott, architect; Norman, OK in "Designed for High School Youth," Architectural Record 116, no. 2 (Aug. 1954): 141-49.
  17. 17) Langley-Bath-Clearwater High School [1955] Lyles, Bissett, Carlisle & Wolff, architect; Bath, SC in "Six Year High School For a Southern Mill Town Area," Architectural Record 117, no. 2 (Feb. 1955): 186-89; PhotoCrd: Hedrich-Blessing Studio.
  18. 18) Pocantico Hills Central School [1956] Perkins + Will, architect; Pocantico, NY in "Schools," Architectural Record 119, no. 4 (Apr. 1956): 238-42; PhotoCrd: Joseph Molitor.
  19. 19) Greenfield Elementary School [1960] Eberle M. Smith Associates, Inc., architect; Birmingham, MI in "Eight Schools Compared," Progressive Architecture vol. 41, no. 3 (Mar. 1960): 134; PhotoCrd: Lens-Art Photo.
  20. 20) H.F. Hunt Junior High School [1960] Robert Billsborough Price, architect; Tacoma, WA in "Schools: H.F. Hunt Junior High School," Architectural Record 128, no. 2 (Aug. 1960): 191-92; PhotoCrd: Dearborn-Massar.
  21. 21) South Elementary School [1961] Hugh Stubbins & Associates, architect; Andover, MA in "Courts Enhance Environment of Low Cost School," Architectural Record 130, no. 1 (Jul. 1961): 166-67; PhotoCrd: Hedrich-Blessing Studio.
  22. 22) East Hills Junior High School [1964] Traumata-McMahon Associates Inc, architect; Bloomfield Hills, Michigan in "Suburban Campus-Plan school Designed for Future Team Teaching," Architectural Record 136, no. 3 (Sep. 1964): 240; PhotoCrd: Balthazar.
  23. 23) Greenwich High School [1971] Reid & Tarics Associates, architect; Greenwich, CT in "Greenwich High School," Architectural Record 150, no. 5 (Nov. 1971): 133-38; PhotoCrd: Balthazar.
  24. 24) Cambridge Rindge and Latin High School [1980] Eduardo Catalano, architect; Cambridge, MA in "Four Schools with Thought," Architectural Record 168, no. 2 (Aug. 1980): 114-18; PhotoCrd: Roger Sturtevant.
  25. 25) Desert View Elementary School [1988] Perkins & Will, architect; Sunland Park, New Mexico in "Inventive Regionalism Sparks a Prototype for the Desert," Architectural Record 176, no. 10 (Sep. 1988): 106-10; PhotoCrd: Eduardo Catalano.
  26. 26) Perry Community Education Village [1995] Perkins & Will, architect; Perry, OH; "All in One," Architectural Record 187, no. 7 (Jul. 1995): 78-85; PhotoCrd: Perkins & WIll.
  27. 27) Wilbert Snow Elementary School [1999] Jeter, Cook & Jepson, Architect; Middletown, CT; "Open Door Policies: Wilbert Snow School, Middletown, Connecticut," Architectural Record 187, no. 9 (Sep. 1999): 118-21; PhotoCrd: Robert Reck.
  28. 28) The Flint Hill School [2001] Chatelain Architects; Oakton, VA; SIte Visit, Katherine Mooney, Aug. 13, 2012.
  29. 29) Burr Elementary School [2005] Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, architect; Fairfield, CT; "Back to the Future," Architectural Record 193, no. 12 (Dec. 2005): 142-47; PhotoCrd: Woodruff/Brown Photography.
  30. 30) Brunswick Upper School [2008] Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, architect; Greenwich, CT; "Schools K-12: Brunswick Upper School," Architectural Record 196, no. 9 (Sep. 2008): http://archrecord.construction.com/projects/bts/archives/k-12/09_Brunswick/default.asp?bts=K12 (accessed Jul. 7, 2012); PhotoCrd: Robert Polidori.
  31. 31) Nathan Hale High School [2011] Mahlum, architect; Seattle, WA; "Schools of the 21st Century," Architectural Record 200, no. 1 (Jan. 2012): http://archrecord.construction.com/projects/Building_types_study/K-12/2012/Nathan-Hale-High-School.asp?bts=K12 (accessed Jul. 7, 2012); PhotoCrd: Benjamin Benschneider.
  32. 32) Evidence for the archetypical use and the chronological sequence of Sun Spine in 1-12 schools was developed from the following sources: 1950 Norman High School [1951] Caudill Rowlett Scott, architect; Norman, OK in "Designed for High School Youth," Architectural Record 116, no. 2 (Aug. 1954): 143; PhotoCrd: Hedrich-Blessing Studio.; Langley-Bath-Clearwater High School [1955] Lyles, Bissett, Carlisle & Wolff, architects; Bath, SC in "Six Year High School For a Southern Mill Town Area," Architectural Record 117, no. 2 (Feb. 1955): 186; PhotoCrd: Joseph W. Molitor.; Pocantico Hills Central School [1956] Perkins + Will, architect; Pocantico, NY in "Schools," Architectural Record 119, no. 4 (Apr. 1956): 242; PhotoCrd: Hedrich-Blessing Studio.; 1960 Greenfield Elementary School [1960] Eberle M. Smith Associates, Inc., architect; Birmingham, MI in "Eight Schools Compared," Progressive Architecture vol. 41, no. 3 (Mar. 1960): 134; PhotoCrd: Lens-Art Photo.; H.F. Hunt Junior High School [1960] Robert Billsborough Price, architect; Tacoma, WA in "Schools: H.F. Hunt Junior High School," Architectural Record 128, no. 2 (Aug. 1960): 191; PhotoCrd: Dearborn-Massar.; South Elementary School [1961] Hugh Stubbins & Associates, architect; Andover, MA in "Courts Enhance Environment of Low Cost School," Architectural Record 130, no. 1 (Jul. 1961): 167; PhotoCrd: Joseph W. Molitor.; East Hills Junior High School [1964] Traumata-McMahon Associates Inc, architect; Bloomfield Hills, Michigan in "Suburban Campus-Plan school Designed for Future Team Teaching," Architectural Record 136, no. 3 (Sep. 1964): 240; PhotoCrd: Balthazar photos.; 1970 Greenwich High School [1971] Reid & Tarics Associates, architect; Greenwich, CT in "Greenwich High School," Architectural Record 150, no. 5 (Nov. 1971): 135; PhotoCrd: Roger Sturtevant photos.; 1980 Cambridge Rindge and Latin High School [1980] Eduardo Catalano, architect; Cambridge, MA in "Four Schools with Thought," Architectural Record 168, no. 2 (Aug. 1980): 118; PhotoCrd: Eduardo Catalano photos.; Desert View Elementary School [1988] Perkins & Will, architect; Sunland Park, New Mexico in "Inventive Regionalism Sparks a Prototype for the Desert," Architectural Record 176, no. 10 (Sep. 1988): 109; PhotoCrd: Robert Reck photos.; Desert View Elementary School [1988] Perkins & Will, architect; Sunland Park, New Mexico in "Inventive Regionalism Sparks a Prototype for the Desert," Architectural Record 176, no. 10 (Sep. 1988): 108; PhotoCrd: Robert Reck photos.; 1990 Perry Community Education Village [1995] Perkins & Will, architect; Perry, OH; "All in One," Architectural Record 187, no. 7 (Jul. 1995): 85; PhotoCrd: Perkins & WIll.; Wilbert Snow Elementary School [1999] Jeter, Cook & Jepson, Architect; Middletown, CT; "Open Door Policies: Wilbert Snow School, Middletown, Connecticut," Architectural Record 187, no. 9 (Sep. 1999): 121; PhotoCrd: Woodruff/Brown Photography.; 2000 The Flint Hill School [2001] Chatelain Architects; Oakton, VA; SIte Visit, Katherine Mooney, 13 August, 2012; PhotoCrd: Katherine Mooney, Intypes Project, 13 August, 2012.; The Flint Hill School [2001] Chatelain Architects; Oakton, VA; SIte Visit, Katherine Mooney, 13 August, 2012; PhotoCrd: Katherine Mooney, Intypes Project, 13 August, 2012.; Burr Elementary School [2005] Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, architect; Fairfield, CT; "Back to the Future," Architectural Record 193, no. 12 (Dec. 2005): 147; PhotoCrd: Robert Polidori.; Burr Elementary School [2005] Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, architect; Fairfield, CT; "Back to the Future," Architectural Record 193, no. 12 (Dec. 2005): 145; PhotoCrd: Robert Polidori.; Brunswick Upper School [2008] Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, architect; Greenwich, CT; "Schools K-12: Brunswick Upper School," Architectural Record 196, no. 9 (Sep. 2008): http://archrecord.construction.com/projects/bts/archives/k-12/09_Brunswick/default.asp?bts=K12 (accessed Jul. 7, 2012); PhotoCrd: Robert Polidori.; 2010 Nathan Hale High School [2011] Mahlum, architect; Seattle, WA; "Schools of the 21st Century," Architectural Record 200, no. 1 (Jan. 2012): http://archrecord.construction.com/projects/Building_types_study/K-12/2012/Nathan-Hale-High-School.asp?bts=K12 (accessed Jul. 7, 2012); PhotoCrd: Benjamin Benschneider.

bibliographic citations

1) The Interior Archetypes Research and Teaching Project, Cornell University, www.intypes.cornell.edu (accessed month & date, year).

2) Mooney, Katherine Elizabeth. "Theory Studies: Archetypical Practices in American K-12 Schools." M.A. Thesis, Cornell University, 2012, 135-64.